The Mongol Siege of Baghdad in 1258

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In just thirteen days in 1258, the Ilkhanate Mongols and their allies ended the Golden Age of Islam. As they destroyed the Grand Library of Baghdad, or Bayt al-Hikmah, eyewitnesses described the Tigris River running black with the ink from countless precious books. Estimates of the death toll among the citizens of the Abbasid Empire vary widely, from 90,000 to as many as one million. Within two weeks, Baghdad, a center of learning and culture for the Muslim world, was left in ruins.

Originally a modest fishing village, Baghdad was transformed into a thriving capital in 762 by Abbasid caliph al-Mansur. It flourished under his grandson, Harun al-Rashid, who attracted scholars, poets, and artists, creating a vibrant academic hub. The city’s populace embraced literacy through the newly introduced Chinese invention of paper.

Meanwhile, the Mongol leader Genghis Khan, born Temujin, unified the Mongols far to the east. His grandson, Hulagu, expanded the empire towards modern Iraq and Syria. Hulagu first eliminated the Assassins in Persia before turning his sights on Baghdad. The Sunni Caliph Mustasim, having alienated his Shiite subjects, was ill-prepared for the Mongol threat.

In late 1257, Hulagu demanded Baghdad’s surrender. Mustasim’s refusal led to a brutal siege. The Mongols breached the city’s defenses, looting treasures and slaughtering hundreds of thousands. The symbolic destruction of the House of Wisdom marked a profound cultural loss. Mustasim was executed by being trampled under horses, a method chosen to avoid spilling royal blood directly.

This conquest marked the peak of Mongol expansion in the Middle East. Though they attempted to push into Egypt, internal strife and a defeat at the Battle of Ayn Jalut in 1280 halted their advance, securing Baghdad’s fall as a pivotal moment in history.